Annotated Bibliography on Policy Argument Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

On Policy Argument - Annotated Bibliography Example Moreover, the article helps in ensuring that there is enough ground to make a claim on ways in which video games have been detrimental to children and teenagers. Lam, Lawrence, Cheng, ZaoHuo and Liu, XinMin.Violent "Online Games Exposure and Cyberbullying/Victimization Among Adolescents." Ebscohost.com. Web. 20 July 2014. . The authors use exploratory study to establish a connection between exposure to violent online -games and cyber-bullying and victimization among adolescents. A recent survey by national population Health Behavior in School-Age Children found that of those involved or affected by cyber bullying "5.3 percent were victims only, and 4.5 % were both perpetrators as well as the victim" (159). The article is relevant to my study, as it has largely focused on school-aged children most of which are teenagers. As a result, it will be of help in making a claim that video games should not be accessible to teenagers and young children. The article questions whether parents are aware of the effects of video games on children. The author notes of various negative influence it has on children such as violent action, having negative image on children, and social isolation. As the author notes, video games make student not to care about grades or learning and want to stay away from other people (1). The article helps to highlight the rise of antisocial behavior due to prevalence of the games and helps to reinforce my call for banning of games. The rise of antisocial behavior should be controlled in all possible ways including making it illegal to make video games available to children and teenagers. Stephen, Burgess, Paul, Stermer Steven and Melinda, Burgess. "Video

Dr zhivago final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Dr zhivago final - Essay Example Zhivago is an exciting, moving, adore tale concerning a pair of individuals caught in dreadful moments; The Great War and the Russian revolt. Majority of the individuals discover about it by the David Lean movie of the sixties; however, it remained thrilling to revisit the manuscript and look for so much new ideas there, which not at all appeared in the movie that individuals may view presently for the first instance. The film may offer people sight; however, the familiarity of television may allow people to move nearer to the core of the associations. Question 1 Scenes that were portrayed extremely well in the Film by David Lean and his team and Campiotti and his team included: One of the scenes that is well portrayed is the scene where Lara fires Komarovsky at a merrymaking; however, fails to aim him; after Komarovsky makes advances to her and sexually harasses her. Komarovsky notices that Lara has the capacity to harm him; nevertheless, he does not desire to threaten his status th rough being associated with her. He concludes to look for her a residence to live; however, he will keep distance from her. This still is the moment when Yury notices Lara and admires her but he does not inform her of his feelings. Meanwhile Tonya is ravaged by her mother’s demise. ... They manage to get a baby girl though their relationship becomes complex. Thus, Pasha decides to join the army where he mysteriously disappears while in the army and Lara decides to work as an army nurse to try and search for him. The third scene, which shows Lean’s men competence in the film, is when the Red’s men kidnap Yury and they force him to do job for them as their nurse. After two decades working for the Red’s, Yury manages to run away through Siberia. Sick and tired, he arrives at Lara’s residence because Lara does not shift from one place to another. Lara takes care of him, they continue with their love affair until when Yury receives a letter from her spouse Tonya informing him that she has conceived a baby girl, and she will move away from Russia. Yury decides to look for his family and then Lara resolves on staying with Komarovsky to escape hazard. Strelnikov fires himself to death on realizing Lara’s affair with Yury and Yury decides to go back to Moscow, to his family. The scene that Campiotti and his team performed really well is the introduction scene where they introduce Lara and Yury as young children. They are depicted as young individuals ready to embark on life. Yury is from a very affluent household and does not anticipate anything will reform. However, when the revolt emerges, it is a little somehow as what transpired following September 11th, which means life takes a new turn wholly. The reason why these scenes were performed so precisely in the film is that they exhaustively brought out the real image of the characters and the motive of the film. They are so clear and non-ambiguous and thus they send the message straight to the viewers. The reason why I would like to keep them is that they bring out the sense of

Leadership and change Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership and change - Assignment Example I exhibit a high level of confidence in situations that require leadership. I have confidence in my ability to deliver exceptional results from any situation. My confidence complements my decision-making skills especially in situations that need quick and real-time decisions. I have the ability to use the available resources in any task to deliver outstanding outcomes. I show a high level of organization when accomplishing leadership roles. In all situations, I try to plan and to apply a high level of order during all tasks. When planning, I set ambitious yet achievable goals that help to create an optimal level of operation and diligence. As a leader, I display flexibility in all situations. Being flexible helps to change strategies and plans whenever unexpected problems or challenges crop up. Flexibility helps me to adapt to uncomfortable environments or situation. Being flexible is useful when using feedback and new information to improve or change processes or policies. I apply a high level of fairness and equality when handling the people I lead. I make sure that all people are treated with respect despite their roles or position. Finally, I have the ability to encourage and motivate other people to work towards a common goal. My weakness during situations of leadership is that I have poor negotiation skills. During negotiations, I usually fail to recognize some factors that have a huge bearing on the process and the final outcomes. I have problems handling presentations.

Innovative company Essay Example for Free

Innovative company Essay ?Innovative Engineering Company was founded by two partners: Meredith Gale and Shelley Yeaton, shortly after they graduated from engineering school. Within five years the partners had built a thriving business, primarily through the development of a product line of measuring instruments based on the laser principle. Success brought with it the need for new permanent capital. After careful calculation, the partners placed the amount of this need at $1. 2 million. This would replace a term loan that was about to mature and provide for plant expansion and related working capital. At first, they sought a wealthy investor, or group of investors, who would provide the $1. 2 million in return for an interest in the partnership. They soon discovered, however, that although some investors were interested in participating in new ventures, none of them was willing to participate as partner in an industrial company because of the risks to their personal fortunes that were inherent in such an arrangement. Gale and Yeaton therefore planned to incorporate the Innovative Engineering Company, in which they would own all the stock. After further investigation, they learned that Arbor Capital Corporation, a venture capital firm, might be interested in providing permanent financing. In thinking about what they might propose to Arbor, their first idea was that Arbor would be asked for $1. 2 million, of which $1. 1 million would be a long-term loan. For the other $100,000, Arbor would receive 10 percent of the Innovative common stock as a sweetener. If Arbor would pay $100,000 for 10 percent of the stock, this would mean that the 90 percent that would be owned by Gale and Yeaton would have a value of $900,000. Although this was considerably higher than Innovative’s net assets, they thought this amount was appropriate in view of the profitability of the product line they had successfully developed. A little calculation convinced them, however, that this idea (hereafter, proposal A) was too risky. The resulting ratio of debt to equity would be greater than 100 percent, which was considered unsound for an industrial company. Their next idea was to change the debt/ equity ratio by using preferred stock in lieu of most of the debt. Specifically, they thought of a package consisting of $200,00 debt, $900,000 preferred stock, and $100,000 common stock (proposal B). They learned, however, that Arbor Capital Corporation was not interested in accepting preferred stock, even at a dividend which exceeded the interest rate on debt. Thereupon, they approached Arbor with a proposal of $600,000 debt and $600,000 equity (proposal C). For the $600,000 equity, Arbor would receive 6/15 (i. e. , 40 percent) of the common stock. . . . Assignment 1. For each of the four proposals, calculate the return on common shareholders’ equity (net income after preferred dividends divided by common shareholders’ equity) that would be earned under each of the three income assumptions. Round calculations to the nearest $1,000 and 1/10 percent. 2. Calculate the pre-tax earnings and return on its $1. 2 million investment to Arbor Capital Corporation under each of the four proposals. Assume that Arbor receives a dividend equal to its portion of common stock ownership times Innovative’s net income after preferred dividends (if any); assume a â€Å"negative dividend† if Innovative has a net loss. 3. Were the partners correct in rejecting proposals A and B? 4. Comment on the likelihood that Innovative Engineering Company could find a more attractive financing proposal than proposal D. Answer : A. 1. 100k long term loan, 100k = 10% of Common Stock. B. 200k Debt, 900k Preferred Stock, 100k Common Stock. C. 600k Debt, 600k Equity, arbor will get 40% of the equity D. 300k debt, 900k equity, 50% Interest 8% Dividend 10%

Non State Actors In International Security

Non State Actors In International Security 1. In the process of state transformation, such as the emergence of new political spaces beyond the territorial nation state, relocation of politics from the state to international and sub-national organizations, diffusion of political power from public authorities to semi-public and private actors, and de-legitimization of the state (crisis of the welfare state, state failures, lack of performance), the old paradigm of top-down, state-led, command control ways of steering the states has been replaced by the new forms of governance and policy instruments: network-like arrangements of public and private actors, self-regulation by business organizations, public-private and civic-private partnerships, etc have emerged (Arts, 2005, p. 2). Many scholars refer to this as a shift from government to governance which is generally referred to as global governance in the study of international relations (Ibid.,p 3). This new concept of global governance invariably includes the relevance of non -state actors (NSAs) for governing global issues. 2. With the proliferation of non-state actors in International Politics,..the traditional Westphalian nation-state is experiencing an erosion of power and sovereignty (Non-state actors, 2010). This eventually undermines the states monopoly of the use of force as well as the monopoly on raising taxes and revenues which seriously restrict the effective performance of basic functions of the sovereign nation state.  [1]  This would not only lead to additional humanitarian disasters, but create tangible security problems and governance failures at the local, regional and at the global level. 3. Non-State Actors have emerged in international relations as important actors. They are limiting the authorities being enjoyed by sovereign nation-state under state-centric international relations based on principles of Westaphalian system.  [2]  By weakening states, NSAs are establishing themselves at domestic as well as international level. 4. At present world order, international security seems to be influenced by NSAs at unprecedented level. The diverse range of non-state actors plays a unique role in the changing dominion of international security in different manner, either positively or negatively. Certainly the various types of non-state actors like Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs), Non Governmental Organizations (NGO), Multinational Corporations (MNCs) and private security firms, and Violent Non-State Actors (VNSAs) may exert their energy in different manner in order to influence the international relations of 21st century there by affecting the international security as a whole. In order to understand the degree, nature, and gravity of influence, the major NSAs have been exerting on international security, their role in international relations need to be explored. METHODOLOGY Statement of the problem 3. To understand and explore the degree, nature, and gravity of influence, the major non-state actors have been exerting on international security. Hypothesis 4. The NSAs are the important players of international relations and they influence international security to a greater extent. The degree and nature of influence exerted by various non-state actors is not same. It is basically depend on the intention and capability of the individual non-state actor. Justification of The Study 5. In post cold war era, international security seems to be influenced by NSAs at an unprecedented level. The role that the NSAs play in the international security arena has come to the notice of many only after the attacks of September 11th. The non-state actors come in various shapes and sizes ranging from Intergovernmental organization, non governmental organization, Transnational companies, terrorist and various criminal organizations etc. This diverse collection of NSAs, with different intentions and capabilities, each plays different and unique role in the international relations. This study will try to explore the role of NSAs in international relations in order to understand the degree, nature, and gravity of influence that the major NSAs have been exerting on international security. Scope 6. Every study and research will not be free from some weakness and drawbacks. The study is limited to certain boundaries for which future new researcher will try to find out the fact in more detail. The scope of the study is limited to the exploration of the influence of major NSAs on international security. NSAs, most active as well as with the strategic influence on international relations have been selected for the study. In this study, international security has been discussed from the traditional security point of view. The traditional security concept refers to the realist construct of security in which the referent object of security is the state. Research Methodology 7. Due to the nature of the subject matter the research is based on the documentary sources. Published materials in the form of books, journal article, dissertations, and reports mainly collected from electronic sources, mostly internet, have been used as secondary sources for this research. Organization of the Dissertation 8. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner: (a) Chapter I: Introduction. The subject would be introduced broadly. Similarly the necessity to carry out the research and the objective to be achieved from the study would be highlighted. This chapter also includes the limitation of the study, methods followed and the preview of the study. (b) Chapter II:Non State Actors and International Security. The detailed Concept of non-state actors and its role at present day world order will be highlighted. Brief background of non-state actors, its relevance at present day context and the diverse assortment of non-state entities will also be briefly brought out. Finally the most influential non-state actors in international relations in framing the international security will be identified for further discussion. (c) Chapter III: Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) as Non State Actors. This part would bring out various important intergovernmental organizations presently active in the world politics. Arguments would be made to qualify these intergovernmental organizations as non-state actors and at the end their contribution in international security will be brought out in detail. (d) Chapter IV: Violent Non State Actors (VNSAs) and International Security. This part will highlight the role and significance of the violent non-state actors in international security. In doing so firstly the violent non-state actors are clearly defined and out of many violent non-state actors only relevant and most influential violent non-state actors would be selected for further discussion. (e) Chapter V: International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs) and Multinational Corporation (MNCs) as International Players. In this portion the argument would be made to analyze importance of the International Nongovernmental Organizations and Multinational Corporations in driving the international relations of 21st century. Finally some conclusions will be drawn regarding the role being played by International Nongovernmental Organizations and Multinational Corporations in shaping the international security. (e) Chapter VI: Conclusion. Based on the arguments made in the various chapters a logical conclusion would be drawn in identifying the degree, nature, and gravity of influence, the major non-state actors have been exerting on international security. CHAPTER II NON STATE ACTORS AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY 9. According to Wikipedia, online encyclopedia, Non-State Actors, in international relations, are actors on the international level which are not states. (Non-state actors, 2010). In Bas Arts definition, they ..are all those actors that are not (representatives of) states, yet that operate at the international level and that are potentially relevant to international relations (2005, p. 4). Citing Josselin Wallace (2001), Joanna Szalachas defines NSA as ..an organization largely autonomous from central government funding and control, it acts between the modern states within the networks, which extends across many borders (n.d., p. 3). 10. First two of above mentioned definitions are simple and believe that only an actor, essentially not a state, active as well as influential at international level, could be a NSA. Szalacha seems to be accepting that a transnational actor focused to a state could also be a NSA. Saying largely autonomous from central government, she does not negate the possibility of some link between NSA and state. Abram Paley is concerned about the strategic role or effect of an actor to qualify itself as a NSA. After discussing several definitions, he summarizes an inclusive definition of strategic NSA with two vital components: (a) any actor that participates on the international stage or affects international interaction, but is not part of the domestic state structure, and (b) an actor-not an issue-that has the common attributes with which all actors in Common game-theoretic models are endowed-i.e. preferences, beliefs, strategies, etc. (Paley, 2008, p. 33). 11. From these different definitions of NSAs, following could be concluded: NSAs are autonomous from states or do not represent the states or governments but may have some link with certain state(s). NSAs operate at international or minimum transnational level. NSAs strategically influence international relations. 12. There are different classifications of NSAs; Table 1 shows three of them by Paley (2008, p. 29), Ataman (2003, p. 45) and Arts (2005, p. 4). Although, there are great similarities in all these three classifications, all writers mention that their classification is not the complete one. Paley says his classification is out of some common example and NSAs are not limited to them, whereas Atamans list of five NGOs is the ones which he believes are of more effective types. 13. There are varieties of actors other than state and it is difficult to find one of such actors without some sort of international or transnational connection in present context of globalization. Therefore, one may come up with more types of NSA than that is mentioned here. For example, Wikipedia in its classification of NSAs, apart from these common ones, has also included the international media, and transnational Diaspora communities (Violent non-state actors, 2010). It has grouped NSAs using violence as Violent NSA but not included IGOs. Regarding, VNSA, it is a common practice to address all NSAs which use illegal violence as their means. There is a lack of consensus on the issue of IGOs; one school of thought believes that an organization formed and collectively participated by the states cannot be termed as a NSA.  [3]  As per the definition and degree as well as gravity of their strategic influence on international relations, one can draw the conclusion that the major N SAs could be classified into four groups, namely IGOs, VNSAs, INGOs, and MNCs. Abram W Paley Muhittin Ataman Bas Arts International Terrorist Organizations. International Criminal Organizations. Nongovernmental Organizations and Grassroots Activists. International Institutions and Inter-governmental Organizations. Multi-national Corporations. Individual Actors. International Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs). Transnational or International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs). Multinational Corporations (MNCs). National Liberation Movements (NLMs). Epistemic Communities. Religious and Humanitarian Organizations. Terrorist Groups and Drug Traffickers (Narco-Terrorists). Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs). International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs). Corporate Interest Groups (CIGs) and Transnational Corporations (TNCs), Epistemic Communities (ECs). a remainder category (including terrorist networks, professional organizations, scouts, churches, etc.). Table 1: Different Classifications of NSAs 14. NSAs appeared at international level as a group of social actors since 1980s and by 1990s, those organizations have gained power and increased influence on public institutions and different states agendas (Szalacha, n.d., p. 3). But NSAs are not completely new phenomena; ..the Hanseatic League monopolized trade on the Baltic Sea between the 13th and 17th centuries, the highly powerful East India Company was founded in 1600, European haute finance was a major contributor to the relative peace of the 19th century, and the Red Cross dates to the 1860s (NIC, 2007). According to Ataman, The proliferation of non-state actors has recently led some observers of international relations to conclude that states are declining in importance and that non-state actors are gaining status and influence (2003, p. 42). Quoting Miller, Ataman further says, The growth of so many kinds of non-state actors challenges and even weakens the state-centric concept of international politics and replaces it w ith a transnational system in which relationships are more complex. These organizations changed the international environment (Ibid.). A report says, A globalization-fueled diffusion of finance and technology has enabled non-state actors to encroach upon functions traditionally performed by nation-states, facilitating their evolution into forms unheard of even a few years ago (NIC, 2007). 15. The NSAs have emerged in international relations as equal as the nation-states. It may compel states to adopt more complex transnational system but in reality, NSAs rise has greater impact in international relations. NSAs have changed the overall traditional concept of international relations, based on the principles of Westphalian system of sovereign states, as Schwartz writes, The influence of non-state actors in this globalized world is unquestionably stronger than at any point since the Westphalia system of state sovereignty was established in 1648 (n.d.). 16. International security is the most influenced aspect of the changing trend of international relations due to the rise of NSAs. Under the traditional concept of international relations, international security is maintained through two types of organizations: classical collective security organization and defensive security organization. The first type of organization is designed to promote international security through regulating the behavior of its member states, whereas defensive security organization is to protect a group of states from threats emanating from a challenging state or group of states. (Gleason Shaihutdinov, 2005, p. 274). In present context, the role of traditional collective security organizations has expanded, if not changed; those organizations have been transformed into NSAs as intergovernmental organizations. Similarly, defensive security organizations have lost their appeal in present unipolar world order; but threat of violent NSAs for them has replaced t hat of formidable rival state or group of states. 17. Non-State Actors have emerged in international relations as important actors. They are limiting the authorities being enjoyed by sovereign nation-state under state-centric international relations based on principles of Westaphalian system. By weakening states, NSAs are establishing themselves at domestic as well as international level and they influence the international security to a greater extent. The degree and nature of influence may vary from one NSA to other; it could be positive or negative as well as at large or small scale. Whatever role the major NSAs are playing in international relations, needs to be studied in order to explore their influence in international security. CHAPTER III INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AS NSAs Defining IGOs 18. The term official web page of Harvard University defines IGOs as an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest. In the absence of a treaty an IGO does not exist in the legal sense. For example, the G8 is a group of eight nations that have annual economic and political summits. IGOs that are formed by treaties are more advantageous than a mere grouping of nations because they are subject to international law and have the ability to enter into enforceable agreements among themselves or with states. (Harvard Law School 2010, Intergovernmental Organizations) 19. The main purposes of IGOs were to create a mechanism for the worlds inhabitants to work more successfully together in the areas of peace and security, and also to deal with economic and social questions. In this current era of increasing globalization and interdependence of nations, IGOs have come to play a very significant role in international political systems and global governance. 20. The number of IGOs is difficult to determine, but estimates range from 270 to more than 1000. They cover multiple issues and involve governments from every region of the world. Among the oldest IGOs are the United Nations, which replaced the League of Nations, the Universal Postal Union, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Other well-known IGOs are the European Union (EU), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the African Development Bank (ADB) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). 21. Since the creation of the UN and NATO, IGOs have become essential actors in the international security. IGOs, such as the UN and the EU, have the ability to make rules and exercise power within their member countries, their global impact continues to increase. 22. Ataman cites Miller to define IGOs as ..voluntary associations of sovereign states established to pursue many objectives for which states want to cooperate through sort of formal structure and to which states are unable to realize by themselves (Ataman, 2003, p. 43). Sovereign states establish IGOs through a treaty  [4]  and accept its authority to make decisions regarding particular problems for common benefit. In other words, the states voluntarily give up sovereignty to an IGO in order to achieve common security, cooperation for collective goods, economic rearwards and political influence. 23. In Atamans view IGOs could be classified by their scope (global and regional) or by their function (political, economic, social and environmental) (Ibid.). Wikipedia has classified them as worldwide global organizations, regional organizations, Cultural, linguistic, ethnic, religious, or historical organizations, Economic organizations, organizations for collective security or mutual defense provisions (Intergovernmental organization, 2010). Among these organizations United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies as well as some regional organizations such as European Union (EU) and collective security organization such as NATO play significant role in international security (Ibid.). Types of IGOs 24. IGOs are typically organized by their membership and by their purpose. For example, the UN is called a global organization because all countries are allowed membership. There are currently 192 member states in the UN. Some IGOs are regional and limit their membership to states within the designated regions. Other IGOs are referred to as selective organizations because they base their membership on criteria other than geography. The Organization of the Islamic Conference, for example, bases its membership on religious affiliation. OPEC, on the other hand, is comprised only of countries that produce oil. Specialized IGOs, such as NATO, limit their activities to a particular field. General IGOs have expertise on a wide variety of topics. The UN is also a general IGO as it is involved in a wide range of issues, including security, poverty reduction, health, telecommunications, international criminal justice, human rights, economic development, and environmental protection (Ibid.). Role in International Relations and Effects on International Security 25. Quoting several constructivist views, Susan Park writes. IGOs ..are norm diffusers or transmitters within the international realm; teaching states their interests (Park, 2004). They ..do this through establishing regimes, forming international agendas, constructing discourse, enforcing rules, and mediating between states (Ibid.) Park believes that these important roles ..show the significance of these organizations as the glue of the international state system, binding states together in various regimes (Ibid.). She argues that the IGOs .. act as official gate-keepers, determining which non-state actors and groups within civil society are deemed legitimate, thus de-legitimizing others, thereby shutting the latter out of the global governance structure (Ibid.). 26. IGOs are the main tools of global governance in true sense; and they are legitimate NSAs. They are responsible for collective security and defense, and they have been contributing a lot for the maintenance of international security. IGOs, formed out of common interests of the member states, maintain international security or stability by keeping member states united. On the other hand, especially collective defense oriented IGOs maintain balance with rival state or group of states. 27. UN is the key player of international relations in present context. The primary mission of UN is to maintain international peace and security.  [5]  To fulfill its mission UN has a strong mandate which it exercises through the Security Council. Since its inception, UN has continuously been trying to prevent conflicts, keep and enforce peace, and disarmament as well as proliferation of WMDs. 28. Regional organizations are also taking big steps, especially on the field of Human Security. EU is unifying entire Europe, which now is unlikely to spark other Great War. Unified Europe can maintain a balance with any other power which may emerge in future. However, regional alliances for comprehensive security are replacing the traditional military alliances; NATO is still effective. NATO, the only remaining major defense organization after the disintegration of former Soviet Union and demise of rival Warsaw Pact, is no more concerned for balance of power, but it is still significant for US and its allies for their defense. NATO is instrumental for US led War on Terror in Afghanistan. Criticism 29. The role played by IGOs at the international level is not out of controversy. There is always a question mark over their effectiveness. Some scholars argue that there problem lies on the fundamental structure and changed role of IGOs, mainly security organizations; according to Gleason Shaihutdinov, Throughout the world, the major inter-state security organizations continue to be essentially Westphalian in nature. They assume the primacy of state actors. While collective security organizations have re-focused to their objectives to confront challenges emanating from below the level of the nation-state, they have not yet reorganized their operational programs to achieve these goals. (2005, pp. 274-275) 30. IGOs like UN have been blamed as tool for powerful countries to impose their principle on the weak countries. ..the UN Security Council cannot accept any decision against the interests of the five permanent members and those of their allies, i.e., the UN Security Council decisions on the Palestinian question against Israel have often been vetoed by the United States (Ataman, 2003, pp. 44-45). The stability achieved on the cost of a states principles could not be long lasting; since it creates discontent and hatred among the people, which could be the seed of a future conflict. 31. Other IGOs, such as WTO and IMF, have been criticized for their role in globalization. Many people believe that globalization further weakens the weaker nation-states whereas strong states take maximum benefit out of it. The increasing gap between powerful states and weak states can gradually lead them to a conflict, jeopardizing international security. Overview 32. Security always puts its stakeholders under a dilemma; states need to think rationally while joining organizations or alliances. Barry Buzan portrays a picture of such dilemma in following words: Security cannot be achieved by either individuals or states acting solely on their own behalf. Some collective measures are necessary among the members of the system if each is to achieve security. Just as security cannot be achieved by individual actors, neither can it be created by concentrating all powers and responsibility at the upper levels. When such concentration happens, as we have seen in the case of individuals and the states, the collective institution becomes major source of threat to those smaller actors it was supposed to protect. (1987, p. 253) 33. Schwartzs following view on UN reflects importance of such IGOs amid their own drawbacks, While the UN is certainly not the ideal institution for international security simply because it is the sum of its parts, states the world would undoubtedly be far more insecure without it. There is no other forum in the world in which every state that wishes can participate. The implication of this should not be underestimated. Communication is essential for averting crises. And there is no other organization in the world with as broad and sweeping a mandate as the UN (Schwartz, n.d.). 34. The criticism of IGOs, exposed drawbacks and their likely consequences are not baseless accusations, but these needs be sorted out through reforms. As the key actors of global governance, IGOs play most significant role on regulating international relations and make huge positive contribution to the maintenance of international security. CHAPTER IV VIOLENT NON-STATE ACTORS AND INTERNATIONAL SECURITY General 35. Even a cursory global survey suggests that violent non-state actors (VNSA s) have become a pervasive challenge to nation-states. In the 21st century, the state monopoly of the use of force is increasingly being reduced to a convenient fiction. No nation state is free of VNSAs. Relatively few of the sovereign states can truly claim a monopoly of force within their territorial borders. 36. One of the most striking features of VNSAs is their sheer variety. This suggests that there is some danger in lumping them together under a single rubric. Yet, it is clear from the preceding analysis that they do have certain things in common: they all emerge in response to inadequacies, deficiencies or shortcomings in many states and to one degree or another seek to compensate for those shortcomings. At the same time, there are important differences in motivation, purpose, power structures and the like. One of the dangers, however, is that they will increasingly form alliances with one another. There are certainly examples of linkages between organized crime and terrorist networks. Identifying VNSAs 37. VNSAs are those NSAs which use illegitimate violence as their means, they might be having some links with a state(s), and their objective could be political or economic. In Ulrich Schneckeners view VNSAs armed non-state actors willing and able to use violence for pursuing their objectives, and not integrated into formalized state institutions (Schneckener, 2006, p. 25). Following statement portrays a detail picture of VNSAs: VNSA are a distinct form of non-state actor, which distinguishes them from police forces and militaries. It is their use of collective violence that most clearly distinguishes Sendero from Starbucks, but their goals and methods also contribute to their illegitimacy. They are illegitimate vis-à  -vis the classical state system in part because the essence of being a state is having a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. By definition, VNSA resort not only to random or opportunistic aggression, but to collective violence as a tool to achieve goals. Collective violence is really an extension of collective action, which is coordinated action by the members of the group in pursuit of common ends. (Bartolomei, Casebeer, Thomas, 2004) 38. Williams says One of the most striking features of VNSA s is their sheer variety. This suggests that there is some danger in lumping them together under a single rubric (2008, p. 17). VNSAs could be found being treated separately or as a group on the study of NSAs. Table 2 shows two different groupings of VNSAs by Ulrich Schneckener (Schneckener, 2006) and Phil Wiiliams (2008). However, there is no significant difference between these two groupings; on the basis of degree of activity as well as impact at international level, only terrorist organizations, insurgents, organized criminal groups, and private security agencies or private military companies (PMCs) could be considered as major VNSA for this study. Ulrich Schneckener Phil Williams Rebels or guerrilla fighters Militias or paramilitaries Clan chiefs or big men Warlords Terrorists Criminals Mercenaries and private security companies Marauders Warlords Militias Paramilitary forces Insurgencies Terrorist organizations Criminal organizations and youth gangs Table 2: Different Classifications of VNSAs The functions VNSAs fulfill for members and supporting constituencies 39. A key part of this is the extent to which the VNSA becomes an alternative form of governance and fulfils functions normally the responsibility of the state. It is important to determine what kinds of capacity gaps and functional holes are filled by VNSAs. These can include the provision of state functions such as imposing and maintaining security and order and can extend to what might be described as paternalistic forms of social welfare. Indeed, for VNSAs filling functional spaces is often even more important than filling territorial spaces. This analytical framework is helpful in considering a wide variety of VNSAs. These include warlords, terrorist organizations, organized crime groups both domestic and transnational, transnational youth gangs, militias and insurgencies. VNSAs in International Relations as Security Threats 40. VNSAs directly challenge and affect individual nation-state or number of states through networking of violent operations. According to Fraiman, they ..pose significant challenges to the administration of states, mainly by threatening their internal monopoly on the use of force. However, at times, these groups can also present considerable external security threats to other states in the international system (2009, p. 1). The most of the modern major conflicts are betwee

Naglo Saxson Burial Customs :: essays research papers

Anglo-Saxon Burial Techniques: Early Anglo-Saxon burials are traditionally based on cremation on a pyre, with the deposition of corpses in the ground in a pottery container. The Anglo-Saxons were experts at cremations, with their pyres being at least as efficient as today's pyres, reaching temperatures of up to 9000C. Cremation burials were never found with weapons - it is possible, of course, that these were a part of the cremation, but melted in the flames, but many are found with miniature weapons and miniature combs. In the fourth and fifth centuries, inhumation burials came into common use, where the unburned body is deposited in a rectangular grave. It was probably copied from the late Roman technique, although it is suggested that it was introduced from Denmark. Inhumation burials typically were accompanied by weapons, and grave goods according to status. In the seventh century, Anglo-Saxon burials abruptly changed, as a direct result of Christianity. The most obvious indicator is the lack of pagan objects, such as weapons- a practice encouraged by the Church. Many cemeteries were abandoned that had been used in the fifth and sixth centuries, and the double cemetery also became common -that is, a cemetery was abandoned and a new one was setup beside it. There were a number of new types of burial present after the Church arrived. The first of these is the 'Final Phase' burial, which is basically a transition between a pagan inhumation, with the corpse being accompanied typically by clothes, jewelry, weapons and other personal belongings, and a Christian inhumation, where the corpse is unclothed and unfurnished, except for a shroud. On the whole, these burials have very few grave goods when compared to the previous pagan period, and some have no grave goods at all. The graves are aligned east-west, after the Christian fashion, and all except a very small number are inhumation - after the sixth century, cremations become almost redundant. Another type of burial identified, is that of the 'Princely' burial, normally located under a mound, with a high number of quality grave goods. They contain either a cremation or an inhumation. Anglo-Saxon standards is that burial mounds usually cover inhumations, rather than cremations. One such burial is that of Sutton Hoo, in Suffolk, on the River Deben. There were a number of burials here, all of them under mounds. An interesting reflection of Anglo-Saxon society was the graves surrounding - the so-called 'sand-men', which appear to have been human sacrifices.

Prison makes bad people worse Essay

In the year 2002, there were just over 68,000 persons in prison in England and Wales, 6,000 in Scotland and 1,200 in Northern Ireland. In the case of England and Wales, this is a few thousand more than in 1999, but at this time the plateau stood in marked comparison to the trend up to 1997-8 and it was by no means certain that this could be maintained, (Morgan, 2002). These findings serve to highlight the progressive increase in rising prison numbers in the UK the causes of which are continually in debate and beg the question; what happens when there is no more room left in our prisons? For the purpose of this essay, this author assumes that the statement â€Å"prison makes bad people worse† infers that an offender, who serves a custodial sentence, is more likely to re-offend upon release. Before evaluating this statement and reaching a conclusion, this author will introduce a brief history of the prison system in an attempt to offer an understanding of how imprisonment has become the most severe penalty imposed on offenders in the UK today. Prisons all over the world have existed for many years for the purpose of confining those in society who have committed a crime serious enough to warrant such a sentence. The purpose of prison is now not only to inflict a punishment but also to attempt to rehabilitate offenders contrasting with the early days of imprisonment where little rehabilitative work was done. A custodial sentence is now the most severe penalty that an offender can be sentenced to in the UK following the abolition of the death penalty in 1965. Imprisonment is intended to punish offenders through restricting freedom and liberty as well as unfavourable living conditions in the name of ‘less eligibility’, (Morgan, 2002). This in no way is intended to suggest that conditions in prisons are inhumane although reports exist from previous investigations that would suggest otherwise. Punishment for offenders was served in a very different manner prior to the nineteenth century. Punishments at this time in the main consisted of physical punishment which would often involve torture, public humiliation and even execution. After decades of this type of punishment being administered, the torture and public humiliation elements ceased. The infliction of physical pain was replaced by the principle that the loss of rights and wealth would serve as an adequate deterrent for further offending. Although this altered form of punishment apparently focused on the mind of the individual, it could still be argued that custodial sentences still impose an element of physical torture indirectly by food rationing, sexual deprivation and solitary confinement. These aspects of punishments are still relevant within the penal system today, (Flynn, 1998). Many different explanations exist for why this change from physical punishment to imprisonment came about, one of which argues that the reason for the shift was due to humanitarianism and reform which would offer a more humane and civilised alternative to the methods of previous years, (Wilson, Ellis, Mikulski, & Nash, 2003). An opposing argument suggested that this was not the case and that the defining of a new age and more effective punishment by focusing on the reform of offenders into the ‘disciplined subject’ were the main reasons for this shift in operation, (Foucault, 1977). Despite this argument, one of the most influential factors associated with how prisons operate in the UK today is the concept of human rights. The 1998 Human Rights Act governs these rights. Along with this, the Prisons Inspectorate introduced guidelines on what factors should constitute a healthy custodial environment based on international human rights principles. Arising from the World Health Organisation’s influence, four tests are used to identify whether a healthy custodial environment is present. Firstly, prisoners must be held in safety. Secondly, they must be treated with respect and dignity as human beings. Thirdly, they must be able to engage in purposeful activity, and lastly, prisoners must be prepared for resettlement into the community prior to release, (Owers, 2003). Because of the unpleasantness of imprisonment it is necessary for this type of punishment to be justified. Prison can be very unpleasant for many offenders as their liberty is severely reduced, their contact with family and friends is minimised, and it can infer many social disadvantages that may lead to offenders becoming socially excluded upon their release from custody. In order to justify imprisonment as a viable punishment, numerous theories or arguments have been introduced in an attempt to support this sentencing option. One argument that attempts to justify imprisonment is the concept of Reductionism. This argument suggests that custodial sentences reduce the number of crimes committed. Those in agreement with this theory also argue that the number of crimes committed will be less if someone is punished in this manner, than there would be if no punishment were imposed at all, (Cavadino & Dignan, 1997). This theory also suggests that society as a whole, has a greater influence than the individual and therefore an offender would be powerless to justify not going to prison if he/she had committed a crime that endangered public safety, (Abercrombie, Hill, & Turner, 1988). However, it could be argued that this theory suggests that crimes are only committed by those who are in prison ignoring the concept that there are many in society committing crimes that have never been caught. Deterrence is another theory used to justify imprisonment as an appropriate punishment by arguing that people will not offend because they are too fearful of the consequences should they be caught as the punishment is seen as too severe. There are two elements to this theory, firstly there is individual deterrence which suggests that an offender will not re-offend because the punishment they received last time was so severe that it has deterred them from doing it again. Secondly, there is general deterrence which argues that a punishment imposed on one offender for a crime will deter others from offending, as they know exactly what the consequences are. At first glance, deterrence theory appears to hold validity, but in reality research findings have indicated that sentencing offenders to custodial sentences has a more influential effect. Once an offender has been in prison they may find themselves labelled by the rest of society and categorised into a stereotype with unfavourable connotations. This may hinder their attempts to live lawful lives for example; problems getting a job and even psychological effects, which may become apparent in their behaviour, (Cavadino & Dignan, 1997). This evidence could be used to support the argument that prison does make people worse. Rehabilitation theory suggests that some forms of punishment can actually reduce the likelihood of re-offending and alter an offender’s behaviour and attitude. Together the prison service and the probation service are heavily involved with rehabilitation as well as the treatment and training of offenders, (Wilson et al, 2003). As a main aim of the prison service to assist in the rehabilitation of offenders, the provision of accredited programmes such as PASRO (Prisons Addressing Substance Related Offending) and ETS (Enhanced Thinking Skills) attempt to address prisoners’ offending behaviour whilst in prison. However, a report by the Social Exclusion Unit found that the prison experience causes such damage to an offenders’ rehabilitation that it outweighs the effectiveness of the programmes, (Solomon, 2003). Another criticism of the penal system is that many offenders are sentenced to such short periods of custody that they are unable to gain access to any rehabilitative interventions. This evidence could also suggest that prison can make bad people worse. The theory of incapacitation implies more emphasis on public protection rather than the behaviour of offenders which coincidently is another main remit of the probation service. Quite simply, this theory argues that if an offender is in custody they are unable to commit crime and therefore ensuring public safety for the duration of the sentence giving piece of mind to members of society, (Ainsworth, 2000). It could be argued that this theory fails to recognise that crime often occurs within prisons including violence, bullying and drug offences. Another criticism of this theory is that as mentioned earlier, the public will only be protected in this manner for the duration of a sentence. Lastly, retribution theory holds that punishment is imposed on an offender to redress the balance between offenders and their victims in making sure that the offender suffers for their crime. Ainsworth (2000), recognises that seeing an offender incarcerated may make the victims feel that justice has been done. However, this is often not the case as many offenders receive sentences that the victim may feel does not reflect the harm that has been caused to them as a result of the offence. Now that some of the justifications for imprisonment have been discussed, it is now possible to explore conformity within prisons which may assist in reaching a conclusion on whether the statement â€Å"prison makes bad people worse† can be justified. Conformity, a theory closely linked with labelling theory, suggests that an individual may conform to social rules or may even assume a social role because it is recognised as the norm in their environment. Heavily influenced by the levels of power, social roles exist predominantly in the prison environment especially between prison officers and offenders. One study that attempted to explore power dynamics and how easy it is to assume a role was conducted in August 1971 by psychologist Philip Zimbardo and was named the Stanford Prison Experiment. Twenty-five male volunteers took part in the experiment and were taken to a mock prison where each person was assigned a role of either prisoner or guard. The guards had the authority to dictate 24 hour a day rules to the prisoners the results of which were shocking and are still referred to today. A number of prisoners had to be released due to mental health illnesses arising from the trauma of the situation. The experiment, which was intended to last for two weeks, was terminated after six days due to the pathological reactions of the prisoners who ironically had been selected for their normality. The findings were that the environment transformed the participants and after a few days, the role dominated the person, (Alexander, 2001). This experiment highlighted social power as the being the major factor in the participant’s behaviour as all the guards at some point displayed abuse, authoritarian attitudes, and appeared to enjoy being in control. Zimbardo argued that this abnormal behaviour is a product of transactions within an environment that supports this behaviour. The labels placed upon the participants became valid in this environment and pathological behaviour was the outcome, (Wilson et al, 2003). This experiment still has implications for the prison system today in that Zimbardo argued that the current prison system is guaranteed to cause severe pathological reactions within prisoners causing a debasement of their humanity, low self esteem and making it difficult to integrate into society outside of prison, (Wilson et al, 2003). This would suggest that labelling and conformity theories are a case for prison making bad people worse. Whilst in prison an offender may assume a role that could be continued upon their release. Zimbardos’ experiment provides an adequate basis for discussing the sociological theory of a prison subculture sometimes referred to as the inmate code. The prison society exists apart from the rest of society and therefore it is understandable that norms and values are very different between the two. Sykes (1958) found that the inmate code is something that may give a prisoner an identity and help them to cope with the effects of imprisonment. The code is thought to include certain rules such as not fraternising with staff, acquiring a position in the inmate ‘pecking order’, and giving the impression of toughness in emotion and physical appearance. Clemmer (1940) argued this to be part of the prisonisation process which arguably reinforces criminal behaviour as prisoners become used to opposing authority which is likely to continue in the outside world, (Cited in Morgan, 2002). Therefore, attempts at rehabilitation may be hindered by this and could be used to argue that prison makes bad people worse. So what statistical evidence is there to support the statement â€Å"prisons make bad people worse†? Reports into the subject have found that prisons have a poor record in reducing re-offending and that 59% of offenders are reconvicted within two years of release. For male youths under the age of twenty-one, the reconviction rate is 74% over the same period of time. Research findings from the Social Exclusion Unit have indicated that re-offending by ex-prisoners costs society approximately ? 11 billion each year and that they are responsible for one in five recorded crimes, (Solomon, 2003). This evidence would appear to suggest that people who have served custodial sentences have been made worse by the experience and that imprisonment is not an effective punishment. Contributing to this argument is the theory that these statistics are only obtained from recorded crime suggesting that the figures may in reality be significantly higher as many crimes are not recorded. In conclusion it would appear that there is much evidence to support the claim that prison makes bad people worse such as the statistical evidence revealing reconviction rates. On the other hand, there are also arguments for prison as an effective punishment such as the justifications for imprisonment including rehabilitation and deterrence theories. It would appear that prison does indeed have an influence on some prisoners re-offending but it would be difficult to assume that this is the case for all offenders who have served a custodial sentence. This would suggest that for some offenders prison is effective and for others it is not. Having said this, it is important to recognise that prison does ensure public safety from offenders who pose danger to society, but only for the period they are in custody unless they emerge from prison rehabilitated. For those offenders who could be dealt with in another manner, community penalties offer the versatility in sentencing options necessary to provide effective punishment without contributing to the growing problem of increasing prison numbers. It is therefore vital that the most appropriate punishment is imposed individually taking the crime and the offenders’ circumstances into account when sentencing.